Table 1 Characteristics of studies included in the meta-analysis
First author, location, years data collected (if routine dataset) | Sampling Method (if denominator could include women more than once) µ | Sample Size (denominator) | Population characteristics | Mean Age (SD) | Mean BMI (SD) | Parity: % nulli-parous | Family History | Screening Type | Gestation at testing (wks) | Diag. criteria used (Category) | Number of cases of GDM Overall prevalence (95% CI) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Acosta et al., 2001 [43] Puerto Rico, USA 1997–1998 | Retrospective medical note review of all pregnant women in one hospital | 3,4471 | Residents of Puerto Rico | NR | NR | NR | NR | One step: 50 g OGTT | 24–28 | ACOG (NDDG) 2 | 123 3.6% (3.0-4.2) |
Aljohani et al., 2008 [44] Manitoba, Canada 1993–2004 (Routine) | Retrospective study of all pregnant women in one areaµ | 1993–1998: 96,7081 1999–2004: 98,5681 | 13% First Nation | NR | NR | NR | NR | Two step: 50 g GTT then 100 g OGTT | 24 | CDA 1992 2 CDA 1998 4 | FN 734/12,192 6.0% (5.6–6.5) Non FN 1,874/84,516 2.2% (2.1–2.3) FN 958/12,221 7.8% (7.4–8.3) Non FN 3,117/86,347 2.9% (2.8-3.0) |
Alunni et al., 2015 [45] California, USA 2010–2012 | Retrospective study of women with singleton pregnancies in one hospital | 1,3542 | Registered with UC San Diego health provider | NR | NR | NR | NR | Two step: 50 g GCT then 100 g OGTT | 24–28 | ACOG (CC) 1 | 70 5.2% (4.1–6.5) |
Berkowitz et al., 1992 [46] New York, USA, 1987–1989 | Prospective study of women with singleton pregnancies at one medical centre (if > 1 pregnancy, randomly identified 1) | 10,1872 | Multi-ethnic population (public only) - geographically defined | NR | NR | NR | NR | Two step: 50 g GCT then 100 g OGTT | 26–32 | NDDG 2 | 328 3.2% (2.9–3.6) |
Black et al., 2013 [47] California, USA, 2005–2010 | Retrospective study of women with singleton pregnancies at one HMO-affiliated medical centre (first pregnancy during study period) | 10,4191 | Registered with KP HMO (75% Hispanic) | 28.9 | 31.7% overweight 27.8% obese | NR | NR | One step: 75 g 2 h OGTT | 24–28 | IADPSG 5 | 2,516 24.1% (23.2–24.9) |
Bodmer-Roy et al., 2012 [48] Montreal, Canada 2008–2010 | Retrospective study of all pregnant women at one medical centre | 5,6012 | 70% Caucasian | NR | NR | NR | NR | Two step: 50 g GCT then 2 h 75 g OGTT | 24–28 | CDA 2008 4 | 467 8.3% (8.2–8.4) |
Dabelea et al., 2005 [49] Colorado, USA, 1994–2002 (Routine) | Retrospective study of women with singleton pregnancies in one areaµ | 36,4032 Pregnancies (30,216 women) | Registered with KP HMO, 72% non Hispanic white | 28 (NR) | NR | NR | NR | Two step: 50 g GCT then 3 h 100 g OGTT | 24–28 | NDDG 2 | 1,183 3.9% (3.7–4.1) |
Donovan et al., 2016 [50] Alberta, Canada, 2008–2012 (Routine) | Retrospective study of all primiparous pregnant women in one area | 78,5522 | Large geographically defined area | NR | NR | 100% | NR | Two step: 50 g GCT then 75 or 100 g OGTT | 24–28 | CDA 2008 4 | 2,675 3.4% (3.3–3.5) |
Dooley et al., 1991 [51] Chicago, USA 3 year period prior to 1991 | Retrospective study of pregnant women at one hospital | 3,7442 | 39% white, 38% black, 20% Hispanic | NR | NR | NR | NR | Two step: 50 g GCT then 3 h 100 g OGTT | 24–28 | NDDG 2 | 130 3.5% (2.9–4.1) |
Feldman et al., 2016 [52] California, USA, 2010–2013 | Retrospective study among women with one singleton pregnancy during study period at one HMO–affiliated medical centre | Period 1: 2,9722 Period 2: 3,0942 | Registered with KP HMO | 30.3 30.3 | 26.1 26.2 | 31% 40% | NR | Two-step: 50 g GTT followed by 100 g OGTT One step: 2 h 75 g OGTT | 24–28 | CC 1 IADPSG 5 | 512 17.3% (16.0–18.7) 847 27.4% (25.8–29.0) |
Ghaffari et al., 2020 [53], San Francisco, USA, 2012–2018 | Retrospective study among women with one singleton pregnancy at one university obstetrics department. | Period 1: 6,9622 Period 2: 4,2872 | 47.1% White, 6.7% Black, 11.7% Latina, 22.6% Asian 40.6% White, 5.7% Black, 13.4% Latina, 19.8% Asian | 32.4 (5.5) 32.9 (5.2) | 24.2 (5.3) 25.2 (5.4) | 61.1% 71.1% | NR | Two-step: GCT then 3 h 100 g OGTT One-step: 75 g 2 h OGTT | 24–28 24–28 | CC 1 IADPSG 5 | 642 9.2% (8.5–9.9) 999 23.3% (22-24.6) |
Harris et al., 1997 [54] Ontario, Canada 1990–1993 | Retrospective study of women with singleton pregnancies (random selection if more than one pregnancy during study period) | 1,2632 | First Nations | NR | 25.7 (5.2) | NR | 47% | Two step: 50 g OGTT then 100 g OGTT | 24–28 | 3rd International workshop 3 | 110 8.7% (7.3–10.4) |
Hedderson et al., 2010 [55] California, USA 1995–2004 (Routine) | Retrospective study of women with singleton pregnancies in one area (first pregnancy during study period only) | 216,0892 | Registered with KP HMO, (excluding Native American, non-specific Asian and unknown ethnicity) | 28.4 | NR | 54% | NR | Two step: 50 g GCT then 3 h 100 g OGTT | NR (assumed 24–28) | CC 1 | 12,663 5.9% (5.8-6.0) |
Hillier, 2021 [56], Hawaii, Oregon, Southwest Washington, USA, 2014–2017 | Randomised controlled trial of women with singleton pregnancies receiving care at KP Hawaii and Northwestµ | One step: 11,1272 Two step: 11,1622 | 55.5% White 15% Asian 5.2% Hawaiian/Pacific Islander Black 0.4% American Indian 11% Multiple races 0.3% Other 9.8% Unknown 55.5% White 15% Asian 5.2% Hawaiian/Pacific Islander 2.8% Black 0.4% American Indian 11% Multiple races 0.4% Other 9.7% Unknown | 29.4 (5.5) 29.3 (5.5) | 27.4 (6.7) 27.6 (7.0) | 30.5% 30.5% | NR | One step: 75 g 2 h OGTT Two step: 1 h 50 g GCT then 3 h 100 g OGTT. | 24–28 | IADPSG 5 CC 1 | 1837 16.5% (15.8–17.2) 945 8.5% (8.0–9.0) |
Hsu et al., 2023 [57] USA, 1998–2016 | Retrospective study of all women attending a medical center and affiliated community health centreµ | 51,0592 | 59.7% White 11.6% Multiracial/none of the above 12.4% Hispanic/Latina 8.7% Asian 6.5% Black | 30.9 (5.9) | 25.5 (5.3) | NR | NR | Two step: 50 g GCT then 3 h 100 g OGTT | 28 | NDDG 2 | 2.6% 1303 (2.4–2.7) |
Kalamegham et al., 2010 [58] Texas, USA 2000–2007 | Retrospective study of all women attending medical centre and associated clinics | 17,6073 | 84% Hispanic | NR | NR | NR | NR | Two-step: 50 g GCT then 3 h 100 g OGTT | 24–28 | CC 1 | 1,397 7.9% (7.5–8.3) |
Keiffer et al., 2006 [59] USA, Detroit 1999–2001 | Prospective study of women with singleton pregnancies in one health centre in Detroit | 1,0012 | Mainly uninsured low-income Latino women | 25 (5.1) | 25.9 | 41.2% | 18.6% | Two step: 50 g GTT followed by 100 g GTT (among women with RBG > 12.6) | 26 | CC 1 | 68 6.8% (5.4–8.5) |
Murphy et al., 1993 [60] Alaska, USA 1987–1988 | Retrospective study of singleton pregnant women with Alaska Native Health Service | 5432 | First Nations women | 25.6 | NR | NR | NR | Two step: 50 g GCT followed by 100 g OGTT | 24–28 | 2nd International workshop 3 | 35 6.4% (4.7–8.8) |
Oster et al., 2014 [61] Alberta, Canada 2000–2009 (Routine) | Retrospective study of all deliveries in one areaµ | 427, 0581 | Large, geographically defined area | FN: 24.9 NFN: 28.8 | NR | NR | NR | Two step: 50 g OGC followed by 75 g OGTT | 24–28 | CDA 2008 4 | 16,370 3.8% (3.8–3.9) FN 1,217/28,306 4.3% (4.3–4.4) NFN 15,153/398,752 3.8% (3.8–3.9) |
Palatnik et al., 2017 [62] Chicago, USA Period 1: 2010–2013 Period 2: 2013–2015 | Retrospective study of singleton pregnancy in one Hospital (first pregnancy during study period only) | Period 1 14 0742 Period 2 9 4352 |  | 31.6 (5.2) 31.7 (5.1) | 30.1 (5.5) 30.2 (5.3) | 52.8% 52.8% | NR NR | One step: 75 g OGT Two step: 50 g oral glucose then 100 g OGTT | NR NR | IADPSG 5 CC 1 | 1,167 8.3% (7.9–8.7) 715 7.5% (7.0–8.0) |
Pedula et al., 2009 [63] Hawaii, USA 1995–2003 (Routine) | Retrospective study of deliveries among women with singleton pregnancies in one areaµ | 20,8932 | Registered with KP HMO | NR | NR | NR | NR | Two step: 50 g GCT 100 g OGTT | 24–28 | NDDG 2 [Carpenter-Coustan]* | 927 4.4% (4.2–4.7) 1,387 6.6% (6.3–6.9)] |
Pocobelli et al., 2018 [64] Washington, USA, 2009–2014 (Routine) | Retrospective study of women with singleton deliveries in one HMO areaµ | Period 1: 8,3632 Period 2: 10,7912 | Registered with KP HMO | NR | NR | NR | NR | Two step: 50 g GCT or fasting serum glucose test then 100 g 3 h OGTT. One step: 75 g OGTT | 24–28 24–28 | NDDG 2 IADPSG 5 | 662 7.9% (7.3–8.5) 1244 11.5% (10.9–12.1) |
Pouliot et al., 2019 [65] Canada 2014–2016 | Retrospective study of all singleton deliveries at one university hospital | Period 1: 1,2952 Period 2: 1,5352 | 49.7% White 25.8% Middle East 16.2% African-Carribean 5.5% Hispanic 2.3% Asian 0.5% Other 53.2% White 19.7% Middle East 19.7% African-Carribean 3.2% Hispanic 3.6% Asian 0% Other | Period 1: 30.9 (5.3) 31.0 (5.2) | Period 1: 25.5 (5.6) 26.3 (5.9) | Period 1: 33.4% 31.5% | NR | One step: 2 h 75 g OGTT | 24–28 | Period 1: CDA 2008 4 IADPSG 5 | Period 1: 141 10.8% (9.1–12.5) 271 17.6% (15.8–19.6) |
Schwartz et al., 1999 [66] Oregon, USA 1995–1996 (Routine) | All pregnant womenµ | 8,8572 | Registered with KP HMO North West division | NR | NR | NR |  | Two step: 1 h GCT followed by 100 g 3 h OGTT | 28 weeks | NDDG 2 [Carpenter- Coustan]* | 284 3.2% (2.8–3.6) [438 4.9% (3.5–5.4)] |
Schwartz et al., 1999 [67] Detroit, USA 1990–1998 | All singleton deliveries in one medical centre in Detroitµ | 29,6441 | One medical centre | 31.0 | NR | NR | NR | Two step: 1 h 50 g GCT followed by 100 g 3 h OGTT | 24–28 weeks | NDDG 2 | 1,245 4.2% (4.0-4.4) |
Tudela et al., 2012 [68] Texas, USA, 2000–2003 | Retrospective study of women with singleton pregnancies at Texan hospital | 24,8831 | Parkland Hospital, Texas | 25.2 | NR | 34.6% | 34.6% | Two step: 1 h 50 g GCC then 100 g OGTT | NR | NDDG 2 | 1,044 4.2% (4.0-4.4) |
Willows et al., 2011 [69] Quebec, Canada 1994–2000 | Retrospective study of singleton deliveries | 2,1271 | First Nations (Cree) | NR | NR | NR | NR | One step: 50 g GCT | NR | CDA 2008 4 | 219 10.3% (9.0–11.6) |
Yeung et al., 2017 [70] British Columbia, Canada 2004–2010 (Routine) | **Retrospective study of all singleton deliveries in British Columbiaµ | 247,2152 | Geographically defined | 30.5 | NR | 46.6% | NR | Two step: 50 g GTT Followed by 75 g OGTT | 24–28 | CDA 2008 4 | 17,912 7.2% (7.1–7.3) |
Xiong et al., 2001 [71] Northern and Central Alberta, Canada 1991–1997 (Routine) | Retrospective study of all deliveries in one areaµ | 111,4192 | Geographically defined | NR | NR | 40.4% | NR | Two step: 50 g GTT followed by 100 g OGTT | 24–28 | NDDG 2 | 2,755 2.5% (2.4–2.6) |