| Full cohort | After PSM | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 | Lifestyle intervention group | Insulin therapy group | P | Lifestyle intervention group | Insulin therapy group | P |
 n | 616 | 92 |  | 58 | 58 |  |
 Age (years) | 29.5 ± 5.0 | 30.7 ± 4.1 | 0.125 | 31.4 ± 6.4 | 30.7 ± 4.1 | 0.656 |
 Pre-pregnancy BMI (kg/m2) | 23.9 ± 4.0 | 24.8 ± 4.3 | 0.152 | 25.1 ± 1.9 | 24.6 ± 4.3 | 0.820 |
Family history of Hypertension | 46 (10.0) | 10 (11.6) | 0.649 | 8 (13.7) | 7 (12.1) | 0.724 |
 Family history of DM | 9 (6.3) | 8 (25.0) | 0.001 | 4 (6.9) | 5 (8.6) | 0.624 |
At the first visit | ||||||
 SBP (mmHg) | 118 ± 11 | 119 ± 12 | 0.627 | 121 ± 10 | 117 ± 12 | 0.328 |
 DBP(mmHg) | 71 ± 8 | 70 ± 7 | 0.630 | 69 ± 8 | 70 ± 7 | 0.382 |
 Creatin (μmol/L) | 39.65 ± 6.37 | 40.71 ± 5.82 | 0.668 | 53.00 ± 19.03 | 40.71 ± 5.82 | 0.326 |
 UA (mmol/L) | 225.65 ± 43.08 | 236.14 ± 90.23 | 0.660 | 266.33 ± 29.73 | 236.14 ± 90.23 | 0.597 |
 eGFR (ml/min/1.73m2) | 180.6 ± 31.7 | 171.2 ± 24.8 | 0.443 | 145.4 ± 39.7 | 170.2 ± 24.8 | 0.281 |
 ALT (units/L) | 19.0 (13.0 - 34.0) | 23.0 (15.0 - 80.0) | 0.257 | 16.0 (11.0 - 70.0) | 23.0 (15.0 - 80.0) | 0.667 |
 AST (units/L) | 18.5 (15.0 - 22.5) | 17.0 (16.0- 20.0) | 0.727 | 26.0 (14.0 - 33.0) | 17.0 (16.0 - 20.0) | 0.517 |
At performing OGTT | ||||||
 OGTT time (week) | 25.8 ± 2.9 | 24.3 ± 4.8 | 0.042 | 26.4 ± 4.8 | 24.3 ± 4.8 | 0.185 |
 BMI (kg/m2) | 26.5 ± 3.7 | 27.6 ± 4.4 | 0.213 | 27.3 ± 2.0 | 27.6 ± 4.4 | 0.802 |
 SBP (mmHg) | 120 ± 12 | 124 ± 11 | 0.083 | 126 ± 11 | 125 ± 11 | 0.693 |
 DBP (mmHg) | 69 ± 9 | 70 ± 8 | 0.525 | 74 ± 8 | 71 ± 10 | 0.241 |
 FBG (mmol/L) | 4.70 ± 0.73 | 5.61 ± 1.48 | < 0.001 | 3.75 ± 0.21 | 5.60 ± 1.48 | < 0.001 |
 1 h BG (mmol/L) | 9.64 ± 1.63 | 11.32 ± 2.20 | < 0.001 | 9.55 ± 1.35 | 11.32 ± 2.20 | 0.011 |
 2 h BG (mmol/L) | 8.29 ± 1.55 | 9.61 ± 2.49 | 0.002 | 8.67 ± 0.87 | 9.61 ± 2.48 | 0.047 |
 HbA1c (%) | 5.2 ± 0.4 | 5.6 ± 0.6 | < 0.001 | 5.2 ± 0.3 | 5.5 ± 0.6 | 0.027 |
 HbA1c (mmol/mol) | 33 | 38 |  | 33 | 37 |  |
 Area under BG curve | 16.14 ± 1.93 | 18.86 ± 3.80 | < 0.001 | 16.02 ± 1.14 | 18.86 ± 3.80 | 0.025 |
 HOMA - IR* | 2.54 (1.66 - 3.45) | 2.30 (1.66 - 3.63) | 0.716 | 1.77 (1.09 - 2.95) | 3.00 (1.53 - 3.63) | 0.179 |
 HOMA - β* | 295.85 (162.47 - 663.78) | 94.90 (52.05 - 259.19) | < 0.001 | 331.28 (80.94 - 823.42) | 94.90 (52.05 - 259.19) | < 0.001 |
 CH (mmol/L) | 5.50 ± 1.26 | 5.47 ± 1.30 | 0.896 | 5.56 ± 1.44 | 5.47 ± 1.30 | 0.832 |
 TG (mmol/L) | 3.18 ± 1.76 | 3.05 ± 1.82 | 0.667 | 2.93 ± 1.30 | 3.05 ± 1.82 | 0.845 |
 HDL (mmol/L) | 1.73 ± 0.45 | 1.67 ± 0.42 | 0.521 | 1.58 ± 0.21 | 1.67 ± 0.42 | 0.481 |
 LDL (mmol/L) | 2.93 ± 1.04 | 2.96 ± 1.02 | 0.897 | 3.12 ± 0.97 | 2.95 ± 1.02 | 0.651 |
One week before delivery | ||||||
Delivery time | 38.6 ± 1.5 | 39.1 ± 1.3 | 0.170 | 39.0 ± 0.9 | 39.2 ± 1.3 | 0.664 |
intervention time frame (weeks) | 12.6 ± 3.1 | 12.3 ± 1.6 | 0.628 | 12.6 ± 4.5 | 12.3 ± 1.6 | 0.809 |
Insulin dose | NA | 39 (27 - 56) | Â | NA | 39 (27 - 56) | Â |
 BMI (kg/m2) | 28.4 ± 3.5 | 30.9 ± 4.5 | 0.020 | 28.8 ± 2.2 | 30.4 ± 4.7 | 0.030 |
 SBP (mmHg) | 124 ± 13 | 131 ± 13 | 0.005 | 124 ± 9 | 131 ± 12 | 0.043 |
 DBP (mmHg) | 74 ± 9 | 80 ± 8 | 0.007 | 71 ± 10 | 80 ± 11 | 0.011 |
 FBG (mmol/L) | 4.66 ± 0.33 | 4.39 ± 0.23 | 0.912 | 4.51 ± 0.20 | 4.82 ± 0.42 | 0.711 |
 1 h BG (mmol/L) | 7.61 ± 1.09 | 7.14 ± 1.23 | 0.175 | 7.39 ± 1.47 | 7.50 ± 1.22 | 0.845 |
 2 h BG (mmol/L) | 6.79 ± 1.22 | 6.98 ± 1.31 | 0.614 | 7.24 ± 1.54 | 6.73 ± 0.75 | 0.306 |
HbA1c (%) | 5.4 ± 0.4 | 5.2 ± 0.6 | 0.566 | 5.3 ± 0.4 | 5.4 ± 1.3 | 0.699 |
 HbA1c (mmol/mol) | 36 | 33 |  | 34 | 37 |  |
Total GWG (kg) | Â | 0.068 | Â | Â | 0.223 | |
 Adequate | 225 (42.1) | 12 (16.7) |  | 21 (38.2) | 9 (16.7) |  |
 Inadequate | 171 (31.3) | 24 (33.3) |  | 16 (29.1) | 18 (33.3) |  |
 Exceesive | 150 (27.5) | 36 (50.0) |  | 18 (32.7) | 27 (50.0) |  |
Rate of weight gain after OGTT (kg week-1) | 0.345 | Â | Â | 0.563 | ||
 Adequate | 84 (28.6) | 12 (11.8) |  | 18 (32.7) | 16 (30.2) |  |
 Inadequate | 72 (24.5) | 15 (29.4) |  | 14 (25.5) | 6 (11.3) |  |
 Exceesive | 138 (46.9) | 60 (58.8) |  | 23 (41.8) | 31 (58.5) |  |
Gestational hypertension | 72 (11.7) | 20 (31.0) | 0.001 | 12 (17.2) | 26 (38.3) | 0.028 |
 Caesarean section | 280 (68.3) | 46 (63.9) | 0.602 | 28 (48.3) | 32 (56.5) | 0.449 |
 Fetal sex (female) | 310 (49.1) | 22 (37.9) | 0.260 | 28 (50.9) | 21 (37.5) | 0.321 |
 Preterm | 14 (4.7) | 2 (6.3) | 0.779 | 3 (5.5) | 3 (5.3) | 0.932 |
 Newborn weight (g) | 3484.5 ± 488.7 | 3592.1 ± 638.5 | 0.260 | 3607.5 ± 392.1 | 3592.1 ± 638.5 | 0.938 |
 Macrosomia | 62 (14.3) | 10 (15.2) | 0.796 | 9 (16.3) | 8 (15.1) | 0.901 |