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Table 4 Maternal characteristics and study outcomes, overall and by group

From: Lack of concern about body image and health during pregnancy linked to excessive gestational weight gain and small-for-gestational-age deliveries: the Japan Environment and Children’s Study

 

All

Group 1

Group 2

Group 3

 

n (%)

Pa

92,539

71,002 (76.7)

13,406 (14.5)

8131 (8.8)

 

Age, y, mean (SD)

30.7 (5.0)

31.0 (5.0)

29.4 (5.0)***

30.2 (5.3)***

< 0.001

Age categories, y

    

< 0.001

 ≤ 19 (teenage mother)

998 (1.1)

651 (0.9)

202 (1.5)

145 (1.8)

 

 20–34

67,786 (73.2)

51,051 (71.9)

10,744 (80.1)

5991 (73.7)

 

 ≥ 35

21,943 (23.7)

17,889 (25.2)

2231 (16.6)

1823 (22.4)

 

 Missing

1812 (2.0)

    

BMI, kg/m2, mean (SD)

21.2 (3.3)

21.4 (3.4)

20.5 (2.5)***

21.2 (3.5)***

< 0.001

BMI categories, kg/m2

    

< 0.001

 < 18.5 (underweight)

14,867 (16.1)

10,805 (15.2)

2502 (18.7)

1560 (19.2)

 

 18.5–24.9 (normal weight)

67,712 (73.2)

51,871 (73.1)

10,229 (76.3)

5612 (69.0)

 

 ≥ 25 (overweight)

9914 (10.7)

8290 (11.7)

671 (5.0)

953 (11.7)

 

 Missing

46 (0.05)

    

Educational level

    

< 0.001

 High school or less

33,571 (36.3)

25,019 (35.2)

4835 (36.1)

3717 (45.7)

 

 Vocational school/College

38,695 (41.8)

29,989 (42.2)

5838 (43.5)

2868 (35.3)

 

 University or higher

19,735 (21.3)

15,709 (22.1)

2686 (20.0)

1340 (16.5)

 

 Missing

538 (0.6)

    

Weight loss methodsb

    

< 0.001

 None

39,072 (42.2)

30,360 (42.8)

4550 (33.9)

4162 (51.2)

 

 Healthy method

46,612 (50.4)

35,985 (50.7)

7330 (54.7)

3297 (40.5)

 

 Unhealthy method

6855 (7.4)

4657 (6.6)

1526 (11.4)

672 (8.3)

 

Total energy intake, kcal/d

    

< 0.001

 1st (lowest tertile)

30,925 (33.4)

23,538 (33.1)

4536 (33.8)

2851 (35.1)

 

 2nd

30,807 (33.3)

23,929 (33.7)

4425 (33.0)

2453 (30.2)

 

 3rd

30,794 (33.3)

23,523 (33.1)

4444 (33.1)

2827 (34.8)

 

 Missing

13 (0.01)

    

Physical activity, MET-min/d

    

< 0.001

 1st (lowest tertile)

31,986 (34.6)

24,853 (35.0)

4390 (32.7)

2743 (33.7)

 

 2nd

28,475 (30.8)

22,149 (31.2)

4040 (30.1)

2286 (28.1)

 

 3rd

29,901 (32.3)

22,463 (31.6)

4692 (35.0)

2746 (33.8)

 

 Missing

2177 (2.3)

    

Smoking

    

< 0.001

 Never smoke

53,212 (57.5)

41,910 (59.0)

7503 (56.0)

3799 (46.7)

 

 Quit

33,834 (36.6)

25,315 (35.6)

5087 (37.9)

3432 (42.2)

 

 Currently smoke

4392 (4.7)

2990 (4.2)

651 (4.9)

751 (9.2)

 

 Missing

1101 (1.2)

    

Alcohol

    

< 0.001

 Never drink

31,764 (34.3)

24,794 (34.9)

4198 (31.3)

2772 (34.1)

 

 Quit

50,790 (54.9)

38,495 (54.2)

7808 (58.2)

4487 (55.2)

 

 Currently drink

9151 (9.9)

7104 (10.0)

1275 (9.5)

772 (9.5)

 

 Missing

834 (0.9)

    

Single mother

3887 (4.2)

2682 (3.8)

732 (5.5)

473 (5.8)

< 0.001

Parity

    

< 0.001

 0

37,260 (40.3)

27,743 (39.1)

6760 (50.4)

2757 (33.9)

 

 1

36,078 (39.0)

28,047 (39.5)

4680 (34.9)

3351 (41.2)

 

 2 or more

19,201 (20.7)

15,212 (21.4)

1966 (14.7)

2023 (24.9)

 

Past medical history

     

 Anaemia (yes)

17,184 (18.6)

13,101 (18.4)

2551 (19.0)

1532 (18.8)

0.135

 Hypertension (yes)

2301 (2.5)

1873 (2.6)

166 (1.2)

262 (3.2)

< 0.001

 Diabetes (yes)

875 (0.9)

708 (1.0)

77 (0.6)

90 (1.1)

< 0.001

Previous caesarean delivery (yes)

7622 (8.2)

5851 (8.2)

798 (5.9)

973 (12.0)

< 0.001

Nausea and vomiting (yes)

76,326 (82.5)

58,780 (82.8)

11,080 (82.6)

6466 (79.5)

< 0.001

Health guidance (yes)

9877 (10.7)

7689 (10.8)

1300 (9.7)

888 (10.9)

0.001

GWG, kg, mean (SD)

10.3 (4.0)

10.2 (4.0)

10.7 (3.8) ***

10.8 (4.5) ***

< 0.001

GWG categories

    

< 0.001

 Inadequate

16,405 (17.7)

12,872 (18.1)

2126 (15.9)

1407 (17.3)

 

 Appropriate

42,976 (46.4)

33,210 (46.8)

6410 (47.8)

3356 (41.3)

 

 Excessive

31,362 (33.9)

23,550 (33.2)

4574 (34.1)

3238 (39.8)

 

 Missing

1796 (1.9)

    

Birth weight, g, mean (SD)

3030.8 (408.2)

3035.0 (406.9)

3018.5 (399.0)***

3013.8 (433.0)***

< 0.001

Foetal size

    

0.001

 SGA

6973 (7.5)

5250 (7.4)

1043 (7.8)

680 (8.4)

 

 AGA

76,261 (82.4)

58,533 (82.4)

11,110 (82.9)

6618 (81.4)

 

 LGA

9305 (10.1)

7219 (10.2)

1253 (9.3)

833 (10.2)

 
  1. AGA appropriate for gestational age, BMI body mass index, GWG gestational weight gain, LGA large for gestational age, SGA small for gestational age
  2. Group 1 = health conscious; Group 2 = body-shape and health conscious; Group 3 = not body-shape or health conscious
  3. a p-values from chi-squared test or one-way ANOVA
  4. b Healthy method = eating less or reducing snacks, dieting, or exercising to lose weight; Unhealthy method = using medication, purging after meals, or smoking to lose weight
  5. Bonferroni multiple comparisons (compared to Group 1): * <  0.05, ** <  0.01, *** <  0.001
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