Explanatory Variables | Unadjusted | Adjusted |
---|---|---|
OR (95% CI) | OR (95% CI) | |
Year of survey | ||
2001 | 1.00 (Reference) | 1.00 (Reference) |
2006 | 0.92 (0.78, 1.10) | 0.95 (0.78, 1.16) |
2011 | 0.77 (0.64, 0.93) | 0.98 (0.80, 1.21) |
2016 | 0.62 (0.51, 0.77) | 0.72 (0.56, 0.92) |
Community level factor | ||
Types of residence | ||
Urban | 1.00 (Reference) | |
Rural | 1.46 (1.20, 1.79) | |
Ecological zone | ||
Terai | 1.00 (Reference) | 1.00 (Reference) |
Hill | 0.89 (0.75, 1.05) | 1.02 (0.83, 1.26) |
Mountain | 1.35 (1.09, 1.66) | 1.44 (1.07, 1.95) |
Socio-economic factor | ||
Wealth index | ||
Rich | 1.00 (Reference) | |
Middle | 1.73 (1.41, 2.13) | |
Poor | 1.93 (1.57, 2.39) | |
Religion | ||
Buddhist | 1.00 (Reference) | |
Hindu | 1.37 (0.99, 1.91) | |
Others including Muslim and Christian | 1.47 (0.97, 2.21) | |
Ethnicity | ||
Brahmin/chettri | 1.00 (Reference) | 1.00 (Reference) |
Dalit | 1.44 (1.13, 1.82) | 1.30 (1.02, 1.65) |
Janajati | 1.02 (0.83, 1.26) | 1.05 (0.84, 1.31) |
Madhesi | 1.31 (1.07, 1.62) | 1.28 (0.99, 1.65) |
Mother education | ||
Secondary or higher | 1.00 (Reference) | |
Primary | 1.44 (1.11, 1.85) | |
No education | 1.64 (1.33, 2.03) | |
Mother’s literacy level | ||
Can read part or whole of the sentence | 1.00 (Reference) | |
Cannot read | 1.42 (1.24, 1.63) | |
Father education | ||
Secondary or higher | 1.00 (Reference) | |
Primary | 1.21 (1.00, 1.46) | |
No education | 1.47 (1.23, 1.77) | |
Mother occupation | ||
Not working | 1.00 (Reference) | |
Agriculture | 1.28 (1.05, 1.56) | |
Non-agriculture | 0.95 (0.66, 1.36) | |
Maternal factor | ||
Mother’s current age (years) | ||
25–49 | 1.00 (Reference) | 1.00 (Reference) |
15–18 | 1.76 (1.27, 2.45) | 1.99 (1.30, 3.09) |
19–24 | 1.12 (0.95, 1.33) | 1.71 (1.39, 2.11) |
Maternal marital status | ||
Not currently married | 1.00 (Reference) | |
Currently married | 1.43 (0.63, 3.26) | |
Birth order and birth interval | ||
2nd/3rd birth order, interval > 2 years | 1.00 (Reference) | 1.00 (Reference) |
1st birth order | 1.90 (1.54, 2.35) | 1.32 (1.03, 1.69) |
2nd/3rd birth order, interval ≤ 2 years | 2.20 (1.71, 2.85) | 1.83 (1.39, 2.42) |
4th or higher birth order, interval > 2 years | 4.48 (3.67, 5.47) | 3.27 (2.58, 4.15) |
4th or higher birth order, interval ≤ 2 years | 2.35 (1.76, 3.12) | 2.41 (1.76, 3.29) |
Environmental factor | ||
Types of drinking water source | ||
Piped water on premises | 1.00 (Reference) | |
Other improved drinking water sources | 1.30 (1.00, 1.68) | |
Unimproved drinking water sources | 1.45 (1.00, 2.12) | |
Surface drinking water sources | 1.70 (1.24, 2.35) | |
Types of sanitation facility | ||
Improved sanitation facilities | 1.00 (Reference) | |
Unimproved sanitation facilities | 1.44 (1.06, 1.95) | |
Open defecation | 1.63 (1.37, 1.94) | |
Types of cooking fuel | ||
Natural gas | 1.00 (Reference) | 1.00 (Reference) |
Biomass energy | 2.05 (1.54, 2.73) | 1.46 (1.08, 1.97) |
Health service factor | ||
Number of antenatal care (ANC) visits | ||
4+ | 1.00 (Reference) | |
(1–3) | 1.25 (1.04, 1.51) | |
No ANC | 1.37 (1.10, 1.70) | |
Number of TT during pregnancy | ||
2 + TT | 1.00 (Reference) | |
1 TT | 1.02 (0.80, 1.30) | |
Never | 1.18 (0.97, 1.43) | |
IFA supplementation during pregnancy | ||
Yes | 1.00 (Reference) | |
No | 1.18 (0.99, 1.41) | |
Place and assistance during delivery | ||
Health facility | 1.00 (Reference) | |
Home delivery with skilled attendants | 1.59 (0.76, 3.32) | |
Home delivery without skilled attendants | 1.12 (0.94, 1.32) | |
Use of contraceptives | ||
Yes | 1.00 (Reference) | 1.00 (Reference) |
No | 2.25 (1.87, 2.70) | 1.93 (1.61, 2.31) |