Table 2 Risk factors for stillbirths among cases and controls – bivariate analyses
From: Risk factors for stillbirths: how much can a responsive health system prevent?
Risk factors | Cases n (%) n = 400 | Controls n (%) n = 800 | p-value* |
|---|---|---|---|
Sociodemographic factors | |||
 Age of the mother >30 years | 23 (5.8) | 15 (1.9) | <0.001* |
 Occupation of mother (working outside home) | 117 (29.3) | 283 (35.4) | 0.03* |
 Education of father (illiterate) | 152 (38.0) | 310 (38.8) | 0.8 |
 Occupation of father (non-manual labourer) | 163 (40.8) | 365 (45.6) | 0.11 |
 Sex of the child (male)a | 218/393 (55.4) | 485/800 (61.1) |  |
Antenatal factors | |||
 Birth order | |||
  Primigravidae | 174 (43.5) | 275 (34.4) | <0.001* |
  Multigravidae | 226 (56.5) | 525 (65.6) | |
 Gestation period (n = 1178) | |||
   < 28 weeks | 0 | 3 (0.4) | <0.001* |
   < 37 weeks | 298 (75.3) | 286 (36.7) | |
 Mean interval between present and the last pregnancies among multigravida (months) | 20.1 (10.3) | 20.2 (9.4) | 0.9 |
 Any previous stillbirths among multigravida mothers | 33 (14.6) | 59 (11.3) | 0.2 |
 Registered with health facility during pregnancy | 372 (93.0) | 754 (94.3) | 0.39 |
 Proportion of women registered in 1st trimester | 187 (46.8) | 479 (59.9) | <0.001* |
 Received 3 or more ANC checkups | 141 (35.3) | 428 (53.5) | <0.001* |
 Intake of iron tablets during pregnancy | 263 (65.8) | 567 (70.9) | 0.07 |
 Multiple pregnancy (current pregnancy) | 4 (1.0) | 6 (0.8) | 0.65 |
 Tetanus toxoid during pregnancy | 385 (96.3) | 772 (96.5) | 0.83 |
 Ultrasound during pregnancy | 104 (26) | 205 (25.6) | 0.9 |
 Exposure to active or passive smoking | 156 (39) | 170 (21.3) | <0.001* |
 History of chewing tobacco during pregnancy | 89 (22.3) | 59 (7.4) | <0.001* |
 History of injury or accident during pregnancy | 41 (10.3) | 11 (1.4) | <0.001* |
 History of any physical violence during pregnancy | 50 (12.5) | 56 (7.0) | 0.002* |
 Gestational diabetes | 12 (3.0) | 30 (3.8) | 0.5 |
 Intake of indigenous medicines during pregnancy | 25 (6.3) | 33 (4.1) | 0.44 |
Factors during last trimester of pregnancy | |||
 Bleeding per vagina during pregnancy | 146 (36.5) | 106 (13.3) | <0.001* |
 Excessive or foul smelling vaginal discharge during pregnancy | 75 (18.8) | 62 (7.8) | <0.001* |
 Burning micturition | 199 (49.8) | 312 (39.0) | <0.001* |
 Oedema (hand or face or legs) | 225 (56.3) | 317 (39.6) | <0.001* |
 Severe or persistent abdominal pain during pregnancy (not labour pain) | 131 (32.8) | 211 (26.4) | 0.02* |
 Blurring of vision or severe headache during pregnancy | 132 (33.0) | 123 (15.4) | <0.001* |
 Severe anemia requiring blood transfusion | 19 (4.8) | 26 (3.3) | 0.2 |
 High blood pressure during pregnancy | 46 (11.5) | 21 (2.6) | <0.001* |
Factors related to labour and childbirth | |||
 Any complication during labour | 140 (35.0) | 152 (19.0) | <0.001* |
 Administration of 2 or more doses of medicines to augment labour | 145 (36.3) | 208 (26.1) | <0.001* |
 Duration of labour (12 h or more) | 37 (9.3) | 71 (8.9) | 0.53 |
 Mode of transport to reach facilities | n = 395 | n = 616 | <0.001* |
  Ambulance | 93 (23.5) | 148 (23.9) | |
  Private vehicle | 200 (50.6) | 374 (60.4) | |
  Any public transport | 102 (25.8) | 94 (15.0) | |
 Time taken to reach facility | n = 393 | n = 616 |  |
  Up to 30 min | 253 (64.4) | 439 (71.3) | 0.02* |
   > 30 min | 140 (35.6) | 177 (28.7) | |
 Time to attend after reaching the facility | n = 392 | n = 615 |  |
  Up to 10 min. | 171 (43.5) | 390 (63.4) | <0.001* |
   > 10 min. | 222 (56.5) | 225 (36.6) | |
 Mode of deliveryb |  | ||
  Vaginal (spontaneously or with little maneuver) | 375 (93.7) | 783 (98.1) | |
  Instrumental delivery | 24 (6.0) | 10 (1.3) | |
  Caesarean section | 1 (0.3) | 5 (0.6) | |
 Presence of any visible structural birth defectb |  | ||
  Yes | 3 (0.8%) | 3 (0.4%) | |
  No | 350 (87.5%) | 782 (97.8%) | |
  Do not know | 47 (11.8%) | 15 (1.9%) | |