Table 2 Association between symptoms of depression, anxiety and stress and clinical variables among women with GDM using univariate analysis (n = 526)
Parameters | Depressive Symptoms | Anxiety Symptoms | Stress Symptoms | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
No n = 460 (87.5%) | Yes n = 66 (12.5%) | p-value | No n = 316 (60.1%) | Yes n = 210 (39.9%) | p-value | No n = 470 (89.4%) | Yes n = 56 (10.6%) | p-value | ||
A Diagnosis of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus and Treatment Profile | ||||||||||
 Baseline Fasting Plasma Glucose, mmol/L | 5.48 ± 1.43 | 5.52 ± 1.40 | 0.877 | 5.50 ± 1.46 | 5.48 ± 1.38 | 0.897 | 5.48 ± 1.43 | 5.58 ± 1.38 | 0.619 | |
 Baseline 75-g Two-Hour OGTT, mmol/L | 9.13 ± 2.52 | 9.18 ± 2.87 | 0.895 | 9.09 ± 2.50 | 9.22 ± 2.66 | 0.577 | 9.12 ± 2.51 | 9.32 ± 2.99 | 0.584 | |
 Baseline HbA1c at Diagnosis, % | 5.87 ± 1.47 | 5.57 ± 0.93 | 0.311 | 5.87 ± 1.57 | 5.80 ± 1.18 | 0.672 | 5.85 ± 1.46 | 5.72 ± 0.95 | 0.679 | |
 Treatments | OAD and/or diet modification | 319(87.6) | 45(12.4) | 0.809 | 225(61.8) | 139(38.2) | 0.231a | 327(89.8) | 37(10.2) | 0.560 |
Insulin with/out OAD and/or diet modification | 139(86.9) | 21(13.1) | 90(56.3) | 70(43.8) | 141(88.1) | 19(11.9) | ||||
 Self-Monitoring with Glucometer | No | 61(82.4) | 13(17.6) | 0.074 a | 42(56.8) | 32(43.2) | 0.405 | 65(87.8) | 9(12.2) | 0.476 |
Yes | 323(89.7) | 37(10.3) | 223(61.9) | 137(38.1) | 326(90.6) | 34(9.4) | ||||
Socio-Demographic Factors | ||||||||||
 Age | 32.36 ± 4.93 | 31.73 ± 4.67 | 0.330 | 32.64 ± 4.92 | 31.73 ± 4.82 | 0.037 | 32.34 ± 4.88 | 31.73 ± 5.04 | 0.379 | |
 Ethnicity | Malay | 391(90.3) | 42(9.7) | 0.000 a | 270(62.4) | 163(37.6) | 0.021a | 395(91.2) | 38(8.8) | 0.003 a |
Non-Malay | 69(74.2) | 24(25.8) | 46(49.5) | 47(50.5) | 75(80.6) | 18(19.4) | ||||
 BMI, kg/m2 | 29.51 ± 6.28 | 28.70 ± 5.83 | 0.331 | 29.37 ± 5.91 | 29.44 ± 6.65 | 0.899 | 29.38 ± 6.09 | 29.52 ± 7.26 | 0.880 | |
 Religion | Muslim | 398(90.2) | 43(9.8) | 0.000 a | 274(62.1) | 167(37.9) | 0.037a | 402(91.2) | 39(8.8) | 0.002 a |
Non-Muslim | 61(72.6) | 23(27.4) | 42(50.0) | 42(50.0) | 67(79.8) | 17(20.2) | ||||
 Education | Secondary and below | 205(85.1) | 36(14.9) | 0.134 a | 145(60.2) | 96(39.8) | 0.903 | 211(87.6) | 30(12.4) | 0.275 |
Tertiary | 246(89.5) | 29(10.5) | 164(59.6) | 111(40.4) | 249(90.5) | 26(9.5) | ||||
 Employment | Unemployed | 152(85.9) | 25(14.1) | 0.371 | 110(62.1) | 67(37.9) | 0.497 | 156(88.1) | 21(11.9) | 0.500 |
Employed | 303(88.6) | 39(11.4) | 202(59.1) | 140(40.9) | 308(90.1) | 34(9.9) | ||||
 Family Income, Ringgit Malaysia | 3946.02 ± 2402.72 | 3809.79 ± 3232.09 | 0.758 | 3887.51 ± 2437.18 | 3990.73 ± 2632.08 | 0.662 | 3916.01 ± 2405.89 | 4038.82 ± 3313.27 | 0.798 | |
 Pregnancy Planned | No | 296(87.3) | 43(12.7) | 0.858 | 207(61.1) | 132(38.9) | 0.758 | 302(89.1) | 37(10.9) | 0.981 |
Yes | 144(86.7) | 22(13.3) | 99(59.6) | 67(40.4) | 148(89.2) | 18(10.8) | ||||
 Marital Status | Without husband | 16(76.2) | 5(23.8) | 0.162 b | 15(71.4) | 6(28.6) | 0.286 | 17(81.0) | 4(19.0) | 0.259 |
With husband | 441(88.2) | 59(11.8) | 299(59.8) | 201(40.2) | 450(90.0) | 50(10.0) | ||||
 Parity | Nulliparous- Primiparous | 246(87.5) | 35(12.5) | 0.973 | 163(58.0) | 118(42.0) | 0.229 | 252(89.7) | 29(10.3) | 0.837 |
Multiparous ≥2 | 209(87.4) | 30(12.6) | 151(63.2) | 88(36.8) | 213(89.1) | 26(10.9) | ||||
 Smoking | No | 443(87.0) | 66(13.0) | 1.000 | 301(59.1) | 208(40.9) | 0.086b | 454(89.2) | 55(10.8) | 1.000 |
Yes | 6(100.0) | 0(0.0) | 6(100.0) | 0(0.0) | 6(100.0) | 0(0.0) | ||||
 Alcohol | No | 449(87.7) | 63(12.3) | 1.000 | 309(60.4) | 203(39.6) | 0.719 | 459(89.6) | 53(10.4) | 0.587 |
Yes | 7(87.5) | 1(12.5) | 4(50.0) | 4(50.0) | 7(87.5) | 1(12.5) | ||||
Past Obstetric History | ||||||||||
 Abortion | No | 349(88.6) | 45(11.4) | 0.158 a | 244(61.9) | 150(38.1) | 0.140a | 353(89.6) | 41(10.4) | 0.717 |
Yes | 109(83.8) | 21(16.2) | 71(54.6) | 59(45.4) | 115(88.5) | 15(11.5) | ||||
 Preterm Delivery | No | 441(87.7) | 62(12.3) | 0.321 | 305(60.6) | 198(39.4) | 0.233a | 449(89.3) | 54(10.7) | 1.000 |
Yes | 17(81.0) | 4(19.0) | 10(47.6) | 11(52.4) | 19(90.5) | 2(9.5) | ||||
 Gestational Diabetes Mellitus | No | 356(88.1) | 48(11.9) | 0.366 | 245(60.6) | 159(39.4) | 0.650 | 366(90.6) | 38(9.4) | 0.082 a |
Yes | 102(85.0) | 18(15.0) | 70(58.3) | 50(41.7) | 102(85.0) | 18(15.0) | ||||
Current Medical Problems | ||||||||||
 Hypertension | No | 434(87.1) | 64(12.9) | 0.760 | 298(59.8) | 200(40.2) | 0.573 | 445(89.4) | 53(10.6) | 0.751 |
Yes | 24(92.3) | 2(7.7) | 17(65.4) | 9(34.6) | 23(88.5) | 3(11.5) | ||||
 Allergy | No | 451(88.1) | 61(11.9) | 0.011b | 310(60.5) | 202(39.5) | 0.236b | 460(89.8) | 52(10.2) | 0.030b |
Yes | 7(58.3) | 5(41.7) | 5(41.7) | 7(58.3) | 8(66.7) | 4(33.3) | ||||
 Asthma | No | 424(87.8) | 59(12.2) | 0.368 | 298(61.7) | 185(38.3) | 0.011a | 435(90.1) | 48(9.9) | 0.066b |
Yes | 34(82.9) | 7(17.1) | 17(41.5) | 24(58.5) | 33(80.5) | 8(19.5) | ||||
Family History | ||||||||||
 Heart Disease | No | 390(88.6) | 50(11.4) | 0.052 a | 268(60.9) | 172(39.1) | 0.395 | 394(89.5) | 46(10.5) | 0.693 |
Yes | 68(81.0) | 16(19.0) | 47(56.0) | 37(44.0) | 74(88.1) | 10(11.9) | ||||
 Depression and Anxiety | No | 447(88.9) | 56(11.1) | 0.005b | 308(61.2) | 195(38.8) | 0.029a | 453(90.1) | 50(9.9) | 0.191b |
Yes | 9(60.0) | 6(40.0) | 5(33.3) | 10(66.7) | 12(80.0) | 3(20.0) | ||||
 Gestational Diabetes Mellitus | No | 301(89.6) | 35(10.4) | 0.085a | 208(61.9) | 128(38.1) | 0.335 | 307(91.4) | 29(8.6) | 0.089 a |
Yes | 151(84.4) | 28(15.6) | 103(57.5) | 76(42.5) | 155(86.6) | 24(13.4) | ||||